Tsegaye Tegenu, PhD
2025-03-01
Africans view the Battle of Adwa as a powerful symbol of freedom and unity. This shared sentiment played a role in the formation of the African Union in 1963 as a unifying organization for African states. Addis Ababa was chosen as its headquarters, and it has remained so ever since no matter what. We Ethiopians are grateful for the trust placed in us and the role we are expected to play in fostering cooperation and solidarity among African nations. It is truly a blessing to have Africans as our brothers and sisters, as they deeply understand the sacrifices made at Adwa to preserve independence.
Ethiopians were drawn into the war not by choice. During the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s, the Horn of Africa was divided among Britain, Italy, and France. The British occupied Sudan and parts of Somalia, the French took control of Djibouti, and the Italians seized parts of northern Ethiopia, exploiting the existing power vacuum.
After the death of Emperor Yohannes, taking advantage of the conflict of the regional aristocracy, Italy expanded its aggression territorially occupying the highlands of Eritrea. Because of the great famine that plagued the country, Menelik could not make mobilization to check Italy’s advance. This gave Italy the opportunity to continue further its aggression by occupying more territories on the highlands.
The Strategies of Colonialism
European colonial powers had selfish motives of controlling and exploiting Africa’s resources, land, and people. They sought to achieve this through force, using superior weaponry, as well as deceitful agreements designed to mask their true intentions. Initially, Ethiopia attempted to resist through diplomacy, leading to several agreements, including the Wuchale Treaty in May 1889. However, colonial agreements were ultimately tools for establishing regimes that oppressed their own people while serving colonial interests. Emperor Menelik II rejected this co-opting strategy and refused Italy’s so-called protection.
Emperor Menelik II and the Ethiopian nobility had already recognized Italy’s strategy. Anticipating Italy’s tactics, they addressed internal divisions and worked toward reconciliation and national unity. Unlike other African nations, where colonial powers exploited the ‘divide and rule’ strategy, Ethiopia denied Italy this advantage. While pursuing diplomatic negotiations, Ethiopians also strengthened their internal cohesion. Menelik established common objectives among northern Ethiopian princes and ensured their participation in the war. He resolved disputes with Ras Mengesha Yohannes and reached agreements with the princes of Gojjam, Begemder, Wag, and Wello, successfully unifying regional forces into a strong coalition.
Frustrated by its failure to bribe and divide Ethiopian leaders, Italy resorted to outright aggression. It expanded its military presence in the highlands, with Commander Baratieri securing an additional budget of four million lire and 10,000 trained soldiers. Confident of victory, Baratieri even boasted in Italy that he would return with Menelik in a cage—underestimating Ethiopia’s military culture.
Before the Battle of Adwa in 1896, Ethiopia witnessed over 107 major troop movements and internal conflicts, sharpening its military preparedness. Ethiopian leaders rose to power through merit, distinguished by their skills, including the legendary ability to ‘shoot a rabbit dead while only its ears were showing.’ The battle was the culmination of years of military experience and strategic organization.
On September 17, 1895, during a market day in Addis Ababa, Emperor Menelik called the nation to arms. Despite communication and transport challenges, more than 100,000 soldiers armed with rifles and lances assembled within two months at key locations, including Addis Ababa, Were Illu, Ashenge, and Mekele. Baratieri could not comprehend such rapid mobilization. His strategy of military conquest ultimately failed on March 2, 1896, marking Ethiopia’s historic victory at Adwa.
Adwa’s Game Theory Models: Lessons for Economic independence
Game theory helps predict outcomes in competitive situations where one participant’s choices influence the others. Italian colonialism employed game theory strategies to pressure Ethiopia into accepting a protectorate—failing which, it sought to impose its rule by force. Colonialism was fundamentally about control, but Ethiopia refused to submit.
The Battle of Adwa demonstrates that African nations can achieve economic independence and self-sufficiency by resisting external domination and understanding their strategic interactions with global powers. Economic independence requires a balance of cooperation (within the continent), negotiation (with global powers), and competition (through internal development). Adwa serves as a model for analyzing and implementing strategies that empower Africa to achieve political and economic sovereignty.
Model 1: Continental co-operation
The Ethiopians denied Italy the opportunity to implement its ‘divide and rule’ strategy. Emperor Menelik II united the regional princes of northern Ethiopia under common objectives, successfully forming a coalition that mobilized resources for the war. (For empirical details, see The Survival of Ethiopian Independence by Sven Rubenson).
Similarly, African nations must trust and commit to the African Continental Free Trade Area. When countries prioritize self-interest—such as trading more with the West instead of within the continent—they risk long-term losses. Just as Ethiopia’s unity at Adwa led to victory, African nations must first strengthen cooperation among themselves to achieve sustainable economic growth and independence.
Model 2: Not to be bribed (Treaty of Wuchale)
Colonialism was also enforced through trade treaties, military alliances, and other forms of cooperation. On May 2, 1889, Ethiopia and Italy signed the Wuchale Treaty, granting Italy control over northern Ethiopian territories in exchange for 30,000 muskets and 28 cannons. However, based on Article XVII of the Italian version of the treaty, Italy unilaterally declared Ethiopia a protectorate. Emperor Menelik II rejected this claim, ultimately leading to the Battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896.
Likewise, African nations must avoid passively accepting debt aid from institutions like the IMF and World Bank without strategic conditions. Unchecked borrowing allows lenders to exploit their position. Instead, African countries should prioritize loans that foster self-sustaining industries—such as manufacturing over consumer imports—and invest in infrastructure projects that generate long-term economic returns, rather than borrowing for short-term needs.
Model 3: Self-sufficiency
Italy’s direct military aggression was ultimately thwarted through Ethiopia’s ability to mobilize, move, and supply a large army. Emperor Menelik II had already reformed the country’s economic administration and significantly expanded its tax base, greatly enhancing his capacity to raise and equip troops. This economic transformation laid the foundation for Ethiopia’s preparation for its most decisive battle. (For details, see The Evolution of Ethiopian Absolutism: The Genesis and the Making of the Fiscal Military State, 1696-1913 by Tsegaye Tegenu).
The lesson of Adwa is that African nations must build strong, self-reliant economies that are not overly dependent on foreign aid, imported goods, or external markets. Many African countries export raw materials—such as oil, minerals, and cocoa—while importing finished products, leading to trade imbalances. Weak manufacturing sectors force reliance on foreign goods. To shift from being rule-takers to rule-makers in the global economy, African nations must invest in competitive industries like fintech, agribusiness, and renewable energy, fostering sustainable economic independence.
Model 4: Leadership Quality
Ethiopian rulers had extensive experience in military organization and the mobilization of human and material resources to achieve strategic objectives. Those who rose to leadership in royal service were distinguished by their achievements, embodying skills as precise as the legendary ability to ‘shoot a rabbit dead while only its ears were showing.’ The victory at Adwa reflected qualities such as bravery, self-sacrifice, national unity, determination, loyalty, teamwork, leadership, trust, hard work, gender equality, and exemplary conduct.
African leaders must embody these attributes to achieve economic independence. Building transparent institutions, ethical leadership, and strong economic policies is essential. Good governance ensures fair resource management, while visionary leadership drives sustainable growth.
Although most African nations gained political independence in the mid-20th century, economic independence remains elusive due to structural dependencies on foreign aid, trade imbalances, and external debt. The key lesson from Adwa is that true independence requires African nations to strengthen intra-continental trade, negotiate better foreign deals, borrow strategically, and lead in global industries rather than merely following.
