Defending Emperor Menelik II: His Legacy as Empire-Builder and the Misconceptions of Ethnonationalists in the Current Ethiopian Political Landscape Special Edition for the 129th Anniversary of The Battle of Adowa–The African Victory
The Writer’s Note
This paper aims to offer a balanced view of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia for the general reader. It addresses the current political climate where ethnonationalist factions within the ruling party seek to undermine the emperor’s legacy as empire-builder. These factions are often motivated by the desires to reshape history presenting unsubstantiated narratives more rooted in creative fictions than facts.
It also counters the claims by relying on well-established historical standpoints rather than politicized contemporary theories. The central source for this analysis is Barara – Kedamawit Addis Ababa by Habtamu Mengiste Tegegn, a notable contribution to modern Ethiopian studies. Additional foundational texts include “Ethiopia” by the esteemed French archaeologist Jean Dorse, and “The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People” by the British scholar Professor Edward Ullendorff, all of which deepen our understanding through rigorously researched unbiased historical insights. The author, a former diplomat with experience in Ethiopian foreign missions draws upon these foundational resources to provide a thoroughly examined perspectives.
Overview of Medieval Ethiopia with an Emphasis to the Great Migration
The rise of Islam, a major event in world history had a profound impact on Ethiopia. According to Edward Ullendorff (p. 56), the first major assault on the weakened Abyssinian kingdom came from the north, in the Eighth Century. Emperor Zera Yaqob (Seed of Yaqob, 1434-1468) worked to consolidate and unify the Ethiopian territory, leaving behind an empire that stretched from the Barka River and Massawa (in present Eritrea) down to Ifat, Fatigar, Bali, and Sidamo (Jean Dorse, p. 120). This expansion had been initiated by his predecessor, Emperor Amde Tsion (Pillar of Zion) in 1314-44. History described Amde Tsion as an outstanding Ethiopian king of any age and a singular figure dominating the horn of Africa in the14th Century, who expanded as far south to Wolaita and Zeila to the gulf and the east.
During the Medieval times, the north central highlands of Wag and Lasta, southwards through Shoa along the rift valley, and on the southern most regions of modern Ethiopia were politically, culturally, and economically incorporated in to the Ethiopian cultural region and, for most part, into the Ethiopian State.
From these bases, the kingdom’s integration and stabilization unfolded. By the 13th century, Shoa had emerged as the political and cultural center of modern Ethiopia, connecting with the expansive Medieval names: Damot to the west, Dawaro, Bali, Gurage, Hadiya, Waj to the south, Adal to the east, and Enaria to south west.
Shoa established itself as the southern hub of the Christian empire. However, this position brought challenges, including the Jihad led by the Muslim leader Ahmed Gragn and the subsequent Oromization of Shoa. The Oromo migrations that surged in 1543 dramatically reshaped Ethiopia’s demographics. As Ullendorff (p. 72) noted, the Oromos were pushed toward the center of the country due to pressure from Somali and Afar forces. Dorse (p. 148-150) discusses how the geography and dynamics of present-day Ethiopia would have been different….. This migration reached as far as Amhara, Begemdir, and Wellega, creating tensions that would later challenge Emperor Minas, whose death left a weakened empire beset by internal and external pressures.
Rebuilding and Empire Growth
Menelik II was born in August 17, 1844 in Shoa, central Ethiopia, and raised by the Ada Oromo family of Buta. His childhood friendship with Oromo leaders, especially Gobena Dacha, played a key role in his rise to power. Menelik’s first ambition was to reclaim his ancestors’ territories, starting with Shoa. Menelik preferred to settle his ambitions first by convincing the warlords to subjugate peacefully by telling them, “You raised me; we raised together, and let me get my father’s throne.” In-between 1880 and 1882 Menelik acquired back most of the hinterland of the empire. This stopped the French, the British, and the Italian colonial ambitions. Furthermore, the Era for “the Scramble for Africa “was a challenge for Menelik. His strategic diplomacy and military preparedness enabled him to secure Ethiopia’s sovereignty.
When “Rome” had used the mistranslation to claim a protectorate of overall Ethiopia, he first sought diplomatic solution. Meanwhile, he sent expeditions south and east to obtain gold, ivory tusk, coffee, hides for modern weapons and munitions. In December 1895, after two years of good harvest had filled granaries, Menelik and his war lords moved about 100,000 peasant infantry for the Battle of Adowa to confront Rome.
Defending Emperor Menelik II: Leadership in Administration, Economy, and Military – Unmatched by any Modern Ethiopian Leaders
Administrative Skills: Menelik’s administrative style was characterized by compassion and the desire to lead by love. As his advisor, the Swiss national Gliken noted, Menelik wanted his people to follow him out of loyalty, not fear. The European observer Fod remarked on the lack of distance between the emperor and his subjects. Menelik advocated for marginalized regions like Wellega and Wolaita, ensuring their voices were heard.
Menelik took a firm stance against the slave trade, introducing reforms aimed at ending the practice. He also promoted gender equality by giving women the right to choose their own spouses. His wife, Empress Tayitu, played a crucial role in state affairs, including key decisions that contributed to the Victory of Adowa.
Menelik’s reputation was built on his achievements, not his race or background. He appointed officials based on merit, irrespective of ethnicity or clan. A prime example of this approach was Fitawrari Gobena Dache, an influential general of Oromo descent, who played a key role in Menelik’s administration. Even when Menelik’s cousin, a member of the royal family was sent to learn under Gobena, he was treated as a servant to the general. This demonstrates Menelik’s commitment to appointing based on capability rather than birthright. Many of Menelik’s cabinet members were not from his own tribe, further illustrating his inclusive and merit-based leadership.
Economic Contributions: Menelik is widely credited with modernizing Ethiopia, as noted in the “Encyclopedia Britannica.” He introduced the country’s first grain mill, which was initially met with suspicion. To ease concerns, Emperor Menelik personally demonstrated its use, becoming the first grain mill operator. He was also the first Ethiopian to use a telephone, despite opposition from the clergy, and to dine in a hotel; he made a fascinating shift in societal perceptions, where this practice once associated with the lower class have become symbols of high status. His wife Empress Tayitu opened the First Hotel-Restaurant in Addis Ababa, named ‘Tayitu Hotel.’ His modernization efforts extended to expanding agriculture, introducing eucalyptus trees from Australia, developing horticultures, including most of the imported European flowers what we see and smell in Addis Ababa roads.
He founded Ethiopia’s first modern educational & Musical schools in 1898. Under his leadership, Ethiopia saw the introduction of electricity, postal services, telegraphs, banking, railroads, and modern roads. He also introduced, the first full Ministerial cabinet, introduced laws to wild life conservation, introduced printing machines, local currency, printing press for local newspapers, photography, Ethiopian language scripted type writers, the national flag, and city police force.
One of Menelik’s landmark achievements, seen as a bold move, was the establishment of Ethiopia’s first munition-bullet factory in Addis Ababa, during the periods when Ethiopia was sanctioned from importing arms. He wrote letters to the leading European countries, declaring,
“I do not intend to be indifferent spectator while foreign powers appear with the intention of carving their empires in Africa. Ethiopia for Fourteen Centuries has been an island of Christians among a sea of pagans. Since the Almighty God has protected Ethiopia to this day, I am confident He will protect her and assist her growth in the future. I have no doubt that he will not allow her to be divided among other states. Africans must be free, and Ethiopia will preserve its territorial integrity as well.”
Menelik’s embrace of modernity didn’t stop there—he was also the first Ethiopian to pass a driving test in 1900 and to receive “the Perfect Driver License.” This wasn’t as a privilege granted to him; rather, when no one else volunteered, he led by example.
Menelik and his wife Empress Tayitu’s dedication to development was also evident in his efforts to establish ‘Addis Ababa’ at the site of the ancient city of ‘Barara.’ He brought together skilled laborers from both foreign nations and local communities to build his new capital. In his vision to revive the capital of his ancestors, Menelik turned to the former seat of “Emperor Zera Yacob.”
In 1874, he undertook excavations of historical sites and reestablished what is now the capital city, Addis Ababa, on the grounds where Barara once stood before its destruction by Imam Ahmed’s forces and the impacts of the Great Migration. Although Menelik’s economic reforms were transformative, ethnonationalists have sometimes portrayed him as an exploiter. Despite being an emperor, Menelik frequently borrowed money from merchants to cover state expenses, as many of his nobles and regional leaders were wealthier than he was.
Military Achievements: Menelik was an exceptionally successful military leader, celebrated for uniting a divided Ethiopia during the peak of the “Scramble for Africa” and establishing a powerful, independent African empire. He solidified a strong sense of the Ethiopian identity, which played a crucial role in securing victory at the Battle of Adowa—often referred by scholars as the “Majestic Glue” that unified Ethiopia in a shared triumph.
Menelik’s wartime proclamation is regarded as one of “the shortest operational military directives in modern military history.[36:32].” It remained part of the study of war, on advanced military courses at the renowned institutions, such as the gold standard Fort Knox Military Academy in the United States of America. This concise proclamation effectively outlined the “when, where, how, and why” of the operation, mobilizing about 100,000 people in a remarkably short period of time and leading to a victory in under a single day.
Other than these, he showed strategic skills by reappointing defeated regional warlords to their former positions rather than punishing them. Examples include the leaders of Lasta, Keffa, Jimma, Wolaita, and Harar. This approach helped establish a unified stable Ethiopia governed by the rule of law.
Menelik was a pragmatic and realistic leader with the ability to think critically and objectively. He avoided war unless confident of victory. His rational nature was evident in his governance; after imposing taxes for development and war time, he would send messengers to assess the people’s reaction. If they grew discontent, he would halt or postpone the taxes until a better harvest year. Menelik knew what he wanted, how to achieve it, and how to sustain it, making great efforts to develop the empire.
The Battle of Adwa is celebrated for its strategic brilliance and military coordination under Emperor Menelik and his warlords. It is regarded as a meticulously planned military campaign, with careful preparation in areas of intelligence, counterintelligence, and deception. These tactics were employed to shorten the war by spreading false information, encouraging the Italian forces to initiate the conflict prematurely. Extensive logistical support, including the storage of food ration supplies in what is now called the Wello Region was set up in advance of mobilizing the peasant infantry army, alongside other psychological operations.
Some military scholars have linked the campaign to a blend of Napoleon’s concepts of interior and exterior lines of operation, where Menelik struck from the center against the divided Italian forces and simultaneously acted from the outside against the centrally positioned enemy, effectively dismantling the Italians’ front-line coordination and limiting their logistical support to win the battle in a short period of time.
This wartime coordination and decision-making were fully demonstrated at the Battle of Adwa in March 1896, where Menelik, with Empress Tayitu by his side, led a disciplined Ethiopian peasant army to a decisive victory over Italy. This historic triumph not only preserved Ethiopia’s sovereignty but also became one of the most significant African victories against European colonial powers.
Critical Analysis: Reconquista Versus the Dynamics of Ethiopian Empire-Building
On defending Emperor Menelik II the term “Reconquista” is explained. Reconquista is a Spanish term, while in Medieval Spain and Portugal a series of campaigns by Christian states to recapture territory taken by the Muslims (Moors), who had occupied most of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th Century. To reclaim these lands approximately Three million Muslims were driven out of Spain between 1492-1610.
Emperor Menelik II did not play Reconquista, in contrast, he reintegrated and centralized an empire that his predecessors had ruled for centuries. For instance, when he marched eastward, to secure the empire’s territories in Harar, and oppose the Italian incursions, he defeated Amir Abdulah’s forces at the Battle of Chelenko. After the Amir fled south, Menelik declared, “I am not here to abolish your religion or destroy Islam; every man shall uphold his beliefs,” and appointed the Amir’s uncle as the new ruler. Menelik valued culture, valued religion, and valued diversity. His rational and pragmatic character enabled him to clearly define his goals, pursue them effectively, and maintain them. He made significant efforts to develop his empire through skillful leadership.
The writer’s professional inspirer, ‘Paul B. Henze,’ was an officer at the U.S.A. Foreign Services, who possessed deep knowledge of Ethiopia and its diverse cultures, gained through his long years of residency and extensive travels in Ethiopia. In his meticulously curated book, “Ethiopia: Layers of Time,” he explicitly discussed (page 154) historical documentation, supported by archaeological findings. These findings refute the ethnonationalist’s narratives surrounding the foundation of ‘Addis Ababa’ and the claims of possession rights over the city. In his book he wrote the following:
“…In 1879, Menelik visited ruins north of Entoto, thought to be the remains of the medieval town of ‘Barara.’ Among these, he found a large unfinished rock church on the southern slope of Entoto, Yekamichael, provided evidence that Christians had settled in the area before the Gragn invasions and the Oromo migrations. However, the site, located at 10,000 feet, was cold and difficult to supply with water, food, and fuel. The hot springs at Filwuha, in the valley south of the mountain and the old city attracted the imperial party during the rainy season, and in 1886, ‘Empress Tayitu’ had a house built nearby. This is now considered the founding of ‘Addis Ababa,’ the New Flower at the archeological sites of Barara.”
Menelik demonstrated exceptional strategic brilliance during the Battle of Adowa and established strong international relationships, fostering friendly ties with Russia and the United States at a time when Africa was often referred to as the “Dark Continent.” This was an era when Djibouti was known as the French Somaliland; Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania formerly named the British East Africa. Somalia was divided into the British and Italian Somaliland; and the Northern and Southern Sudan were jointly administered by a ‘Condominium Agreement’ of the United Kingdom and Egypt. Menelik skillfully negotiated treaties with major global powers, including the Great Britain, France, and Italy, to define the borders of what is now modern-day Ethiopia.
Despite his achievements, Menelik has become a target for ethnonationalists who attempted to portray him as an invader and oppressor. These groups often interpret history through an ethnic victimization lens, judging others from their own ethnic perspectives. This shift has upended moral values and fostered social discord, rooted in ideas of ethnic inferiority or superiority, and segregation. This form of tribalism has intensified political hostilities and fueled the crises facing Ethiopia today.
Ethiopia, has relied in politics of ethnicity for the past Thirty-Five years, a stratagem linked to the Greek myth of ‘Sisyphus’-the moral story of absurdity. In the myth, Sisyphus was condemned to endlessly push a boulder up a mountain, only for it to roll back down each time he nears the summit. His fate symbolizes futile and unsuccessful labor.
Similarly, ethnonationalism in Ethiopia has proven fruitless for about three and half decades, failing to embrace the principle of unity in diversity—a concept that underscores how differences should not divide people but instead enrich collective identity. Endless fights by ethnonationalists for dominance is a futile. A collegial civilian led dictatorship less often exit peacefully than junta-led regimes. As the late Henry A. Kissinger, a diplomat and the 56th U.S. Secretary of State once remarked “The conventional army loses if it does not win; a guerrilla wins if he does not lose.”
Building on this profound realpolitik wisdom, contemporary Ethiopia can draw valuable lessons in its pursuit of stability and the rule of law, much like the efforts of its forefathers. The nation now faces the pressing need to embark on a path toward a peaceful resolution for its deep-rooted political challenges—a conundrum that appears, perhaps intentionally, to be an unanswerable question.
In Conclusion, Emperor Menelik II was the King of kings of Ethiopia, not merely a guard, and the central figure and the focal point when we celebrate the Victory of Adowa. When we acknowledge this, only then, we rediscovered unity and the country finds its soul and genus again. As the Bible says, “A prophet is not without honor except in his own town, among his relatives, and in his own home” (Mark 6:4), and this sentiment has been reflected in the way ethnonationalists have tried to diminish his legacy.
The erasing of history began not long ago when they demolished “Ras Mekonnen’s Monument,’ a vanguard figure and frontline general at the Battle of Adwa, solely because of his ethnicity, in the city of Harar. Then followed the recent altering of the historic ‘Fasilides Castle’ (1632–1636) in Gondar City. Many criticized the restoration project as “unscientific,” accusing it of altering the Ethiopian antiquities and turning the site into a mausoleum. Experts argue that proper archaeological work, with international consultation, should have preceded the restoration to maintain historical authenticity. The use of lime plasters and paints, suitable for modern construction, clashed with the building’s original materials. Preserving historical sites requires balancing past integrity with future authenticity by using original materials and techniques. Failure to do so could impact the country’s heritage, the region’s tourism economy, and the hotel industry at large.
To end with, Menelik’s approach was centered on creating a unified national identity and fostering cohesion, often through the promotion of a common language and cultural values. His legacy is shaped by his strategic vision, empire-building, modernization initiatives, and the cultivation of strong international alliances. As the Dutch Christian humanist Erasmus once said, “In the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king.” Despite his shortcomings, the emperor built an empire when the European powers convened at the Berlin Conference, and he was viewed as superior, even when compared to other African countries with even fewer abilities.
Our goal shall be to learn, honor, and accept our differences so that, in time, our differences no longer dictate how we treat each other. In contemporary Ethiopian politics, attempts by ethnonationalists to diminish Emperor Menelik’s legacy through their ethnocentric political landscape, and by the openly tribalist government prioritizing group identity over shared values, and the narratives of deconstructionism is based on fictions than facts. As this scholarly paper demonstrated, it is time to acknowledge the Emperor’s full achievements by setting the record straight, giving him the recognition he undoubtedly deserves, as the father of the nation and a significant figure in both the Ethiopian and African politics.
