In this feature article, we have the privilege to delve into the incredible life journey of Professor Messay Kebede, an Ethiopian born emeritus professor of philosophy. We accompany him through his educational processes from the French School of Lycée Guebre Mariam to the University of Grenoble, where he earned his M.A and Doctorate in philosophy. We explore his enriching career as a philosopher, starting as a lecturer at Addis Ababa University, evolving into Chairman of the Department of Philosophy. We’ll examine his impressive scholarly sojourn in key institutions like Wesleyan University, UNESCO, Howard University, and finally the University of Dayton. Stick around as we navigate through the noteworthy publications and groundbreaking scholarship that have characterized Professor Kebede’s academic expedition.
Early Education and Foundations
Emulating the life and works of Messay Kebede isn’t a task to be taken lightly. His distinguished career begins, as with most prolific intellectuals, at an early age.
Education at Lycée Guebre Mariam
Breaking the seal on his educational journey, Messay was born and raised in Ethiopia, where he attended the French School of Lycée Guebre Mariam. Here, not only did he acquire an in-depth understanding of French language and culture, but also developed a resilience, curiosity and the ambitious drive that was fundamental in shaping his future.
Acquiring the Baccalaureate
Messay’s tenacity quickly bore fruit when he obtained his Baccalaureate in 1968. The Baccalaureate honed his intellectual skills, not only setting a robust base for his future academic conquests but also sculpting the early contours of the erudite philosopher he was to become.
Scholarship and Studies in France
Being conferred the Baccalaureate wasn’t the end of his scholastic exploits—it was just the beginning. Driven by a thirst for learning and an innate love for philosophy, Messay applied and was granted a scholarship in 1968. This marked the start of his philosophical journey in the land of Montaigne, Pascal, and Descartes─ France.
Master’s Degree at University of Grenoble
At the University of Grenoble, Messay dived deep into the world of philosophy. Undeterred by the complexities and rigorous demands of the subject, he achieved his Master’s Degree in Philosophy in 1973. This achievement marked a substantial step in his career, paving the way for further intellectual exploration and his eventual contribution to philosophical discourse.
Doctorate in Philosophy
Messay’s journey did not stop at the Master’s level. Just three short years after obtaining his M.A., in the year 1976, he became a Doctor of Philosophy. It was a triumphant end to his initial academic journey in France, but also a symbolic beginning to his decades-long philosophical exploration and subsequent contributions to academia and beyond.
Academic Career at Addis Ababa University
Messay Kebede’s professional journey took a towering leap when he initiated his academic career at Addis Ababa University. His commitment to teaching and nurturing philosophical thought set the course for an academic life brimming with potential.
Joining as a Lecturer
Following his completion of a Doctorate in philosophy at the University of Grenoble, Messay Kebede eagerly accepted the opportunity to foster the pursuit of knowledge in his homeland. In 1976, he embraced the position of Lecturer at Addis Ababa University. His dedication to educating others about the tenets of philosophy ensured his rise within the department.
Chairman of the Department of Philosophy
Messay Kebede’s ability to inspire, engage, and provoke critical thinking in his students did not go unnoticed. Just a couple of years after joining Addis Ababa University, the Professor took on the prestigious role of Chairman of the Department of Philosophy in 1979. His leadership in this capacity underscored his dedication to not just teaching philosophy, but shaping how it was taught and understood at the institution.
Advancing through the Ranks
While Kebede held administrative responsibilities as Chairman, he never wavered from his pedagogical duties. His continued efforts in enlightening the philosophical minds at Addis Ababa University led to his subsequent promotions.
Promotion to Assistant Professor
In recognition of his dedication and excellent work, Messay Kebede climbed the academic ladder when he was promoted to Assistant Professor in 1981.
Associate Professor Credentials
Renowned for his ability to seamlessly juggle responsibilities, Kebede continued to flourish in Addis Ababa University’s philosophical sphere. Acknowledging his growing expertise, the university promoted him to the rank of Associate Professor in 1991.
Political Dismissal in 1993
Changes in the political climate in Ethiopia in 1993 saw Messay Kebede, along with 42 other instructors, dismissed from their positions at Addis Ababa University. These instructors were dismissed for political reasons, which sparked a new direction in Professor Kebede’s career. However, his dismissal did not damper his quest for knowledge and philosophical exploration, which he continued to pursue beyond Ethiopian borders.
Research Fellowships and Opportunities
The journey of Professor Messay Kebede is punctuated with notable instances of research fellowships, which further enriched his academic and philosophical pursuits. His journey illumines the importance of such opportunities in catapulting one’s career horizon.
Wesleyan University Fellowship
In a significant turn of events, Professor Kebede secured a prestigious position as a senior researcher at Wesleyan University from February 1992 to January 1993. This tenure at Wesleyan University’s Center for the Humanities is a proud feather in his cap. Engaging in purposeful research, he thematic contribution was enriched by his unique philosophical lens.
CODESRIA/Rockefeller Foundation Involvement
This instance of career progress was marked by the generous fellowship from the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) and the Rockefeller Foundation. Their largesse enabled him to delve deep and contribute meaningfully to the intellectual repository in the field of philosophy. Such a golden opportunity refined his intellectual acumen and etched an indelible mark on his career trajectory.
UNESCO Fellowship in France
Following his fruitful stint at the Wesleyan University, Professor Kebede was awarded the coveted UNESCO fellowship. This took him back to France, where his philosophical journey began. Between October and December 1994, he was able to make consequential contributions in his respective field, strengthen his connections with the academic community, and further enrich his comprehensive worldview.
Rockefeller Humanities Residency at Howard University
As further recognition of his profound intellect and commitment to his discipline, Professor Kebede was granted the Rockefeller Humanities Residency Fellowship for the academic year 1996-97. This notable achievement allowed him to serve as a visiting researcher in the Department of African Studies at Howard University. His accomplished residency at Howard University is reflective of his diplomatic and academic prowess, which extends beyond continental boundaries.
Without a doubt, these fellowships and opportunities challenged Professor Messay Kebede and fueled his philosophical pursuits. They imbued his academic journey with intricate layers of knowledge that was not only enriching but had a broad-reaching impact on his disciples and philosophy as a subject.
Career at the University of Dayton
In 1998, Messay Kebede’s illustrious career took a significant turn when he was hired by the University of Dayton, a private Roman Catholic university in Ohio, United States. He joined the Department of Philosophy as an Assistant Professor.
Initial Appointment and Roles
During his years at the department, Professor Kebede displayed an incredible commitment to academic excellence and professional growth. His extensive knowledge and remarkable teaching skills were recognized by both students and faculty members.
Promotion to Associate and Full Professor
In just three years, he was promoted to the rank of Associate Professor, a testament to his undisputed talents and contributions to the field of philosophy and to the University. His profound scholarly impact did not stop there, and by 2005, he had been elevated to the rank of full Professor.
Awards and Recognitions
The University of Dayton recognized Messay Kebede’s dedication and commitment to his students and his extensive contributions to philosophical discourse. His exceptional scholarly work earned him several prestigious awards.
Outstanding Scholarship Award 2005
In 2005, his peerless commitment to education was recognized when he received the Outstanding Scholarship Award from the University of Dayton Alumni. This award marked him out as a scholar contributing significantly to his field.
College of Arts and Sciences Award 2009
Four years later, in 2009, the College of Arts and Sciences of the University of Dayton also honored Messay Kebede. They bestowed upon him an award acknowledging his remarkable and continuous contributions to the advancement of philosophical studies.
Retirement as Emeritus Professor
After a fruitful and distinguished career, spanning several decades and across continents, Messay Kebede eventually retired in June 2021. Upon his retirement, he was accorded the esteemed title of ‘Emeritus Professor’, a fitting tribute to his immense contributions to academia and the legacy he has left behind at the University of Dayton. His rich career is a shining beacon to both current and future generations of philosophers and academics.
Notable Publications
Since the early years of his career, Professor Messay Kebede has continuously distinguished himself as a rigorous scholar and an intrepid explorer in the realm of philosophy. His written works underscore the depth of his inquiries and provide valuable insight into various philosophical frameworks.
Despite a career laden with academic achievements and recognition, Prof. Messay maintains a humble demeanor, attributing his success to a lifelong pursuit of knowledge and understanding. His most significant publications reflect the veracity of this statement, capturing his intellectual prowess, precise argumentation, and philosophical acuity.
Each publication bears testament to Prof. Messay’s intellectual stewardship and has contributed significantly to the discourse of philosophy, particularly in relation to the African context. Indeed, these works have not only cemented his standing as a leading philosopher, but they have also provided a foundation for the next generation of thinkers engaging in philosophical debates within the African context and beyond.
To fully appreciate the weight of Prof. Messay Kebede’s contribution to philosophy, one must delve into his rich, significant, and vast corpus of work spanning several decades. Doing so illuminates his position as an important figure in the field and gives clear indication as to why such a commodious, insightful, and stimulating body of work is considered notable in the truest sense of the term.
In the end, the compilation of these scholarly writings and their subsequent widespread acclaim cements Professor Messay Kebede an esteemed place within the annals of philosophy. Long after his retirement, the learned professor’s mark endures, his influence resonating in the halls of academic discourse; a testament to a career well spent advancing the cause of knowledge and understanding.
The following is the Curriculum Vitae that he has personally prepared. Dated July 23, 2021 Title: “Messay Kebede, Emeritus Professor of Philosophy.”
Curriculum Vitae
Date July 23, 2021
Name: Messay Kebede, Emeritus Professor of Philosophy.
Born Ethiopian, I have completed elementary and secondary schools at the French School of Lycée Guebre Mariam, where I obtained my Baccalaureat in 1968. The grant of a scholarship in 1968 enabled me to study philosophy in France. From the University of Grenoble I earned M.A in philosophy in 1973 and Doctorate in philosophy in 1976. The same year I joined Addis Ababa University as Lecturer. I became Chairman of the Department of Philosophy in 1979. I was promoted to the rank of Assistant Professor in 1981 and to Associate Professor in 1991. I am married and have three children.
Following disturbances, I was dismissed from Addis Ababa University in March 1993 for political reasons with other 40 instructors by the Ethiopian government.
From February 1992 to January 1993, I worked as senior researcher at the Center for the Humanities of Wesleyan University, thanks to a fellowship from CODESRIA/Rockefeller Foundation. My next award was a UNESCO fellowship in France from October to December 1994. In 1996-97, the grant of the Rockefeller Humanities Residency Fellowship enabled me to work as a visiting researcher in the Department of African Studies of Howard University.
In 1998 I was hired by the Department of Philosophy of the University of Dayton as Assistant Professor. I was promoted to Associate Professor in 2001 and to Professor in 2005. The University of Dayton Alumni and the College of Arts and Sciences of the University of Dayton gave me the award of Outstanding Scholarship in 2005 and 2009, respectively. I retired with the rank of Emeritus Professor in June 2021.
Significant Publications in Print
A. Books
Bergson’s Philosophy of Self-Overcoming: Thinking without Negativity or Time as Striving (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2019), 291 pp.
Ideology and Elite conflicts: Autopsy of the Ethiopian Revolution (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2011), 388 pp
Radicalism and Cultural Dislocation in Ethiopia, 1960-1974 (New York: University of Rochester Press, 2008), 235 pp.
Africa’s Quest for a Philosophy of Decolonization, (New York: Rodopi, Value Inquiry Book Series, 2004), 256 pp.
Survival and Modernization–Ethiopia’s Enigmatic Present: A Philosophical Discourse (Lawrenceville, N.J.: Africa World Press Inc. The Red Sea Press Inc., 1999). 460 pp.
Meaning and Development (Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi, Value Inquiry Book Series, 1994), 248 pp.
B. Articles in Professional Journals and Books
“The Nature and Challenges of Ethnicity: The Case of Ethiopia,” International Journal of Ethiopian Studies (forthcoming)
«L’élan bergsonien ou la matière comme ascèse de la vie,» in Revue de métaphysique et de morale 99 : 3 (2018), pp. 385-440.
“Re-imagining the Philosophy of Decolonization” in The Handbook of African Philosophy (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2017), pp. 447-460
“Being and Nothingness versus Bergson’s Striving Being,” Process Studies 46: 1 (2017), pp. 63-85
“Beyond Dualism and Monism: Bergson’s Slanted Being,” Journal of French and Francophone Philosophy24: 2 (2016), 106-130; special issue on the occasion of 75th anniversary of Bergson’s death
“Action and Forgetting: Bergson Theory of Memory,” Philosophy Today 60:2 (Spring 2016), 347-70
“Senghor, or the Holy Grail of Otherness,” Journal on African Philosophy, issue 11 (2015), 58-80
“The Ethiopian Student Movement: A Rejoinder to Bahru Zewde’s The Quest for Socialist Utopia,” Northeast African Studies 15: 1 (Spring 2015), 175-186
“From Perception to Subject: The Bergsonian Reversal,” Journal of French and Francophone Philosophy 22: 1(2014), 102-23
“Return to the Source: Asres Yenesew and the West,” Diogenes 59: 3-4 (2014), 60-71(English translation of an article first written and published in French)
“The Ethiopian Conception of Time and Modernity,” in Listening to Ourselves: A Multilingual Anthology of African Philosophy,” ed. Chike Jeffers (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2113), pp.14-35.
“The Ethnicization of Ethiopian Politics: Origins and Significance,” Game-Changers’s of Identity Politics in Ethiopia, ed. Gedion-Wolde Amanuel (Addis Ababa Banawee Printing Press 2013), 205-219.
“Harnessing Myth to Rationality,” African Philosophy, eds., Bekele Gutema and Charles C. Verbaren (Washington, DC: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2012), 37-52.
“Retour aux sources : Asres Yenesew et l’Occident,” Diogène 2011/3: 235-236 (Aout 2012), 81-97
“African Development and the Primacy of Mental Decolonization,” in Philosophy and African Development: Theory and Practice, ed. Lansana Keita (Dakar: CODESRIA, 2011), 97-114
“Comparing Traditional and Modern Education: The Decentering of Ethiopia,” in Education, Politics and Social Change in Ethiopia, eds., Paulos Milkias and Messay Kebede (Los Angeles: Tsehai Publishers, 2010), 25-34,
Religion and Revolution: Tocqueville’s Insights into the Revolutionary Spirit,” Suvidya, Journal of philosophy and Religion 3: 2 (December 2009), 63-85.
“The Civilian Left and the Radicalization of the Dergue,” Journal of Developing Societies, 24: 4 (April 2008), pp. 159-182
“The Ethiopian Conception of Time and Modernization,” International Journal of Ethiopian Studies 3:1 (Winter 2007), pp. 29-39.
“The Roots and Fallouts of Haile Selassie’s Educational Policy,” commissioned paper, UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research, and Knowledge, series paper no. 10 (June 2006), pp. 1-33.
“Gebrehiwot Baykedagn, Eurocentrism, and the Decentering of Ethiopia,” Journal of Black Studies, 36: 6 (July 2006), pp. 815-832.
“Inquiry into the Seedbed of Radicalism: The Case of the Ethiopian Educated Elite,” Africa Insight 34:1 (March 2004), pp. 23-31
“African Development and the Primacy of Mental Decolonization,” Africa Development 29:1 (2004), pp. 107-129.
“From Marxism-Leninism to Ethnicity: The Sideslips of Ethiopian Elitism,” Northeast African Studies, 10: 2 (2003), pp. 165-188.
“Negritude and Bergsonism,” African Philosophy, no. 3 (2003), pp.1-18.
“From Colonialism to Elitism: An Enquiry into the African Imbroglio,” in The Making of the Africa-Nation (London: Adonis & Abbey, 2003), pp. 103-122.
“Eurocentrism and Ethiopian Historiography: Deconstructing Semitization,” International Journal of Ethiopian Studies (California) 1:1 (Fall, 2003), pp. 1-19.
“Generational Imbalance and Disruptive Change,” The International Journal of Applied Philosophy 16:2 (Fall 2002), pp. 223-248.
“From Marxism-Leninism to Ethnicity: The Sideslips of Ethiopian Elitism,” in Proceedings of the EAF International Conference on Contemporary Development Issues in Ethiopia, Volume III (Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University, 2001), pp. 706-721.
“The Rehabilitation of Violence and the Violence of Rehabilitation: Fanon and Colonialism,” Journal of Black Studies, 31: 5 (May 2001), pp.539-562.
“Directing Ethnicity toward Modernity,” Social Theory and Practice, 27: 2 (April 2001), pp. 265-284.
“From Otherness to Universal Humanism: Negritude’s Idea of Race,” 2000 Politics, Philosophy & Religion Monograph Series (Houston, Texas, 2001), pp. 32-68.
“Tempels and African Otherness: A Reappraisal,” 2000 Politics, Philosophy & Religion Monograph Series (Houston, Texas, 2000), pp. 1-38.
“Development and the African Philosophical Debate,” Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Kalamazoo) 1: 2 (Summer 1999), pp. 01-19.
“Japan and Ethiopia: An Appraisal of Similarities and Divergent Courses.” 15pp., in Proceedings of XIIIth International conference of Ethiopian Studies (Kyoto, Japan, 1997)
“The Structure of Choice,” Philosophy in Science, No. 7 (1997), pp. 105-128.
“Remarques sur la conception bergsonienne de l’histoire,” Les Etudes Philosophiques (Paris), No. 4 (1995), pp. 513-522.
“On the Relationship between the Spiritual and the Material: The Lessons of Underdevelopment,” Diogenes, 41:2 (Summer, 1993), pp. 188-133.
“Science and Ideology via Development,” The Journal of Value (Dordrecht), special issue on Concepts of Good and Evil in Ethical Theories, 26: 4 (October, 1992), pp. 483-494. Discussed Value Inquiry, 30:4 (December 1996), pp. 569-572.
“Development, Ethics, and the Ethics of Nationalism,” Archives for Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy, 78:2 (1992), pp. 194-210.
“Science or Ethics of Development?” The International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 6:2 (Winter 1991), pp. 13-27.
“Underdevelopment and the Problem of Causation, Journal of Social Philosophy, 22:1 (Spring 1990), pp. 125-136.
“Ways Leading to Bergson’s Notion of the Perpetual Present,” Philosophy Today, 33:3-4 (Fall 1989), pp. 275-287.
C. Book Reviews
“Book Review: Vestal’s The Lion of Judah in the New World”
“Book Review: Tadesse Tele Salvano’s Ay Massawa!”
Review of Paulos Milkias’s Haile Selassie, Western Education and Political Revolution in Ethiopia, International Journal of Ethiopian Studies, 3: 1 (Winter 2007), pp. 129-132.
“Bringing It all back Home: Bahru Zewde’s Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia, Branna 1:3 (Winter 2003), pp. 50-51.
Review of John Young, Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People’s Liberation Front, 1975-1991 in Ethiopian Register, 7-2 (February 2000), pp. 26-32.
D. Addresses or Papers to Learned or Professional Groups
“The Nature and Challenges of Ethnicity: The Case of Ethiopia,” invited paper, Ethiopia Forum: Challenges and Opportunities for Constitutional Democracy in Ethiopia, Michigan State University, March23-24, 2019
Read invited paper titled “Between Violent and Nonviolent Methods of Struggle: Ethiopia’s Political Dilemma” at a conference organized by Vision Ethiopia and ESAT, Washington D.C (May 9-10, 2015)
“The Cultural and Political Dimension of Ethnic Conflicts,” Concerned Philosophers for Peace Conference, University of Dayton, November 5-7, 2009
Which Way Ethiopia: Nonviolence or Armed Struggle?”: Conference: Ethiopian Dialogue for Common Ground and Peaceful Change (June 29, 2009, Johns Hopkins University, Washington,
“Ethics and War Strategy: The Case of the Derg’s Military Debacle in Ethiopia,” the 53rd Annual Meeting of African Studies Association, San Francisco, 2010.
“The Legacy of Radicalism and the Fragmentation of Politics in Ethiopia,” invited paper, Horn of Africa Conference, April 9, 2010, Washington DC.
“Which Way Ethiopia: Nonviolence or Armed Struggle?” invited paper: Conference: Ethiopian Dialogue for Common Ground and Peaceful Change (June 29, 2009, Johns Hopkins University, Washington, DC).
“The Cultural and Political Dimension of Ethnic Conflicts,” Concerned Philosophers for Peace Conference, University of Dayton, November 5-7, 2009
Invited speaker on “The Impact of Modern Education on Ethiopian Youth,” The Third Annual Tsehai Conference, George Washington University, Washington, D.C., June 28, 2008
Invited speaker on “Millenarian Beliefs and Radicalization,” The Ethiopian Millennium: Reflections of the Past and Present Challenges, Howard University Washington, DC, September 9, 2007
“Western Education and the Radicalization of the Ethiopian Student Movement,” 49th Annual Meeting, African Studies Association, San Francisco, November 18, 2006.
Invited speaker on “Religion and Revolution: Tocqueville’s Insight into the Revolutionary Mind,” 12th Annual Humanities Symposium 2005, University of Dayton, February 15th
Invited speaker on “Reflections on the Disjuncture between Survival and Modernization in Ethiopia,” The Hebraic Section of the African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress, July 22, 2004
Invited speaker on “the Root Cause of Famine: A Review of Ethiopian Modernization,” International Conference on Land Policy, Famine, and development: The Case of Ethiopia, organized by the Ethiopian Students’ Union in Massachusetts in cooperation with the Law, Policy, and Society Program of Northeastern University, September 27, 2003, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts.
“Myth and Rationality: Reformulating the African Philosophical Debate,” 45th Annual Meeting of African Studies Association, Washington, D. C. December 5-8), 2002.
“Groups Rights versus Individual Rights: the Ethiopian Experience,” Fourteenth Annual Conference of Concerned Philosophers for Peace, St. Bonaventure University, (Allegany), October 25-28, 2001.
“From Marxism to Ethnicity: The Sideslips of Ethiopian Elitism,” International Conference on Contemporary Development Issues in Ethiopia, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, August 16-18, 2001.
“From Otherness to Universal Humanism: Negritude’s Idea of Race,” National Conference of the National Association of African American Studies, Houston, February 12-17, 2001.
Invited speaker on “Ethiopia’s Enigmatic Present,” Seminar on Issues of Development in Post-Colonial Africa, organized by African American Research Center of York College and the Institute of African Studies of Columbia University, New York, March 31, 2001.
“Historicity and the African Philosophical Debate,” 43th Annual Meeting of African Studies Association, Nashville, November 16-19), 2000.
“Between Evolutionism and Pluralism: Tempels’s Path to Human Sameness,” National Conference of the National Association of African American Studies, Houston, February 21-26, 2000.
“Ethnicity and State Formation: Philosophical Reflections on African Realities,” 12th Annual Conference of Concerned Philosophers for Peace, Radford University, Virginia, October 21-24, 1999.
“Development and African Philosophy,” 5th Annual Conference of the Department of Africana Studies Conferences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, February 25-26, 1999.
“Western Rationalism and Negritude,” The Pennsylvania State University Delaware County, Commonwealth College, African cultures Program, February 5, 1998.
“The Invention of the White Man,” 40th Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Columbus, Ohio, November 13-16, 1997.
“The Relevance of African Philosophy to Issues of Development,” Howard University, Conference on African Studies, April 9, 1997.
“Development and Culture Change,” The Pennsylvania State University, Delaware County Campus, Media, PA, Visiting Scholar Program, September 29, 1992.
“The Root Question of Development,” Rockefeller Foundation Institute, Bellagio, Italy, September 21-26, 1992.
“The Place of Traditionalism in Culture Change: The Case of Zara Yaqob,” Addis Ababa University, International Seminar on Zara Yaqob, March 1992 (presented in abstentia).
“Science or Ethics of Development?” 9th International Conference of Logic, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science, Uppsala, Sweden, August 7-14, 1991 (presented in abstentia).
“Philosophy and Theories of Development,” Extraordinary World congress of Philosophy, Nairobi, Kenya, July 21-25, 1991 (presented in abstentia)
“African Philosophy,” University of Cincinnati, March 15, 1989.
E. Articles in Newspapers
As a significant expression of my commitment as a public intellectual, I have published countless number of articles in print and online newspapers. The articles discuss political and cultural issues, mostly related to Ethiopia, but also to Africa and US foreign policy. They are reflective and theoretical and have the distinct characteristic of being written in a form that makes them accessible to the average educated reader.
